Corresponding toxicity data revealed that the addition of serum to cell culture media can, in some cases, have a significant effect on particle toxicity possibly due to changes in agglomeration or surface chemistry. In summary, our results demonstrate that many metal and metal oxide nanomaterials agglomerate in solution and that depending upon the solution particle agglomeration is either agitated or mitigated. Additionally, a stock solution of nanomaterials used for toxicology studies was analyzed for changes in agglomeration and zeta potential of the material over time. It was also necessary to characterize the impact of sonication, which is implemented to aid in particle dispersion and solution mixture. Observations of material-specific surface properties were also recorded. Cell viability and cell morphology studies were conducted in conjunction with DLS experiments to evaluate toxicological effects from observed agglomeration changes in the presence or absence of serum in cell culture media. The current study focuses on characterizing a wide range of nanomaterials using dynamic light scattering (DLS) and transmission electron microscopy, including metals, metal oxides, and carbon-based materials, in water and cell culture media, with and without serum. Previously reported nanoparticle characterization techniques in aqueous or biological solutions have consisted of the use of ultra-high illumination light microscopy and disc centrifuge sedimentation however, these techniques are limited by the measurement size range. Currently, there are no well-defined techniques for characterization of wet nanomaterials in aqueous or biological solutions. Particle size, size distribution, particle morphology, particle composition, surface area, surface chemistry, and particle reactivity in solution are important factors which need to be defined to accurately assess nanoparticle toxicity. Hence, results dictated that NE5 can be a suitable approach to remove CIP from aquatic system contaminated through several effluent sources.The need to characterize nanoparticles in solution before assessing the in vitro toxicity is a high priority. UV scanning and IR studies confirmed absence of CIP in treated water. The %RE (liquid-liquid adsorption efficiency) of CIP from an aqueous bulk solution was significantly affected with the concentration of CMC8 and water content, viscosity, and size of CNE. There was significant impact of water and CMC8 contents on the viscosity (η), size and RI. The robust NE5 revealed optimum viscosity (98.8 ± 2.5 cP) and spherical globular shape (fold error = 1.35) distributed homogeneously throughout the bulk. The optimized and selected NE5 exhibited the lowest globule size (41 ± 3 nm), least PDI (0.12), optimal zeta potential (−22.9 mV), and the highest value of % RE (∼95%). Compositions were selected due to maximum solubility of CIP and NE1-NE5 were identified with the maximum area delineated in pseudo ternary phase diagrams. Percent removal efficiency (% RE) studies of NE1-NE5 formulations were studied at 10 min, 15 min, and 30 min. These five were evaluated for globule size, size distribution (polydispersity index, PDI), viscosity, zeta potential and refractive index (RI) and thermodynamic stability.
From them, five NE1-NE5 were identified as the most optimum for the purpose. These NE were prepared by titration process followed by constructing various phase diagrams.
Green nanoemulsions (NE) composed of water/ethanol/triton X100/capmul MCM C8 (CMC8) were prepared to eliminate ciprofloxacin (CIP) from an aqueous system.